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Agricultural Microbiology Notes
- Agrobacterium-Mediated Gene Transfer (Transformation) in Plants
- Microbial degradation of cellulose (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
- Microbial degradation of chitin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
- Microbial degradation of hemicellulose (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
- Microbial degradation of lignin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
- Microbial degradation of pectin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
- Microorganisms found in soil with effects and examples
- Organic waste recycling (methods, steps, significance, barriers)
- Phyllosphere microorganisms- Examples, Factors, Effects
- Rhizospheric microorganisms and effects, PGPR and Mycorrhiza
- Soil Formation (Pedogenesis)- Factors, Process/Steps, Examples
- Soil- Definition, Composition, Properties, Types and Uses
Anatomy and Physiology Notes
- Adrenal Gland- Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
- Anatomical Position: Planes, Variations, Applications
- Arteries vs. Veins: 27 Major Differences
- Arteries: Definition, Structure, Types, Functions, Diseases
- Blood Group- Definition, Systems, Types, Significances
- Blood Pressure: Definition, Measurement, Mechanism
- Blood- Components, Formation, Functions, Circulation
- Bone vs. Cartilage: 15 Major Differences, Examples
- Breast- Definition, Structure, Functions and Breast Cancer
- Breathing vs. Respiration: 15 Key Differences, Examples
- Capillaries: Structure, 3 Types, Functions, Diseases
- Cardiac Cycle and its 5 Phases
- Cardiovascular System Physiology: Cardiac Conduction
- Chambers of the Heart: Auricles and Ventricles
- Childbirth (Labor Process)- Features, Stages, Mechanism
- Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats
- Diseases and Disorders of the female reproductive system
- Diseases and disorders of the male reproductive system
- Disorders and Diseases of the Human Digestive System
- Echocardiography (Echo): Principle, Types, Procedure, Uses
- Electrocardiogram (ECG): Parts, Principle, Procedure, Types
- Endocrine System- Definition, Glands, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
- Exocrine vs. Endocrine Glands: 8 Differences, Examples
- Functions of The Human Digestive System
- Gonads (Ovaries and Testes)- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions
- Heart Embryology- Development of the Heart
- Heart Valves: Types, Structure, Functions, Diseases
- Heartbeat Phases and Heart Sound Types
- Hemoglobin: Structure, Types, Functions, Diseases
- Hemorrhage- Definition, Class, Types, Disorders
- Hemostasis- Definition, Mechanism, Significance
- Human Cardiovascular System- Organs, Functions, Diseases
- Human Circulatory Circuit: Systemic and Pulmonary
- Human Embryo Transfer- Conditions, Types, Procedure
- Human Embryogenesis- Definition, Process, Stages
- Human Female Reproductive System: Organs, Structure, Functions
- Human Heart- Location, Anatomy, Structure, Functions
- Human Male Reproductive System: Organs, Structure, Functions
- Hyaline Casts: Structure, Types, Process, Importance
- Inhalation vs. Exhalation: 15 Differences, Examples
- Integumentary System- Definition, organs, functions, diseases
- Layers of the Heart: Epicardium, Myocardium, Endocardium
- Lungs- Definition, Structure, Location, Functions, Diseases
- Lymphatic System- Organs, Functions, Diseases
- Menstrual Cycle- Definition, Hormones, Phases, Diagram
- Mucous Membrane: Structure, Location, Functions, Disorders
- Muscle Contraction: Definition, Proteins, Types, Steps
- Nephron- Definition, Structure, Physiology, Functions
- Oogenesis / Ovulation / Ovarian cycle- Definition, Phages, Process
- Pancreas- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
- Parathyroid Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
- Pericardium: Definition, Structure, Functions, Diseases
- Physiology of Human Digestion
- Pineal Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
- Pituitary Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
- Rib Cage: Anatomy, Parts, Bones, Structures, Functions
- Sarcomere: Definition, Structure, Diagram, and Functions
- Selective Reabsorption- Definition, Parts, Process, Diagram
- Semilunar valves- Definition, Anatomy, Types, Dysfunction
- Spermatogenesis vs. Oogenesis: 18 Differences, Examples
- Spermatogenesis- Definition, Stages and Process with figure
- Stimulus- Definition, Types (External, Internal), Mechanism
- The Human Digestive System- Organs, Functions and Diagram
- Thymus Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
- Thyroid Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
- Types of Muscle Tissue (Skeletal, Smooth, Cardiac Muscle)
- Ultrafiltration- Process, Bowman’s Capsule, Glomerulus, Diagram
- Veins: Definition, Structure, Types, Functions, Diseases
- Voluntary vs. Involuntary Muscles: 16 Differences, Examples
- Week by week pregnancy (Baby and body development, tips)
Bacteriology Notes
- A Guide to Ideonella sakaiensis (Plastic-Eating Bacteria)
- Acinetobacter baumannii- An Overview
- Actinobacteria- An Overview
- Aerobic and Facultatively Anaerobic Gram-Positive Cocci
- Anthrax bacilli vs Anthracoid bacilli- 25 Differences
- Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST)- Types and Limitations
- Bacillus anthracis- An Overview
- Bacillus cereus food poisoning with foodborne toxins
- Bacillus cereus- An Overview
- Bacillus subtilis- An Overview and Applications
- Bordetella pertussis- An Overview
- Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme Disease)- An Overview
- Botulism Food Poisoning by Clostridium botulinum
- Burkholderia pseudomallei: An Overview
- Campylobacteriosis- Campylobacter Infection and Food Poisoning
- Chlamydia trachomatis- An Overview
- Clostridium perfringens Enterotoxins and Food poisoning
- Clostridium perfringens- An Overview
- Cocci vs. Bacilli: 5 Major Differences with Examples
- Coccobacilli: Characteristics and Common Examples
- Coliform Bacteria- Characteristics, Examples, Identification
- Collection and transport of stool specimens
- Common Bacteria Causing UTI (Urinary Tract Infection)
- Common Pathogenic Bacteria Found in Blood
- Common Pathogenic Bacteria Found in Sputum
- Common Pathogenic Bacteria Found in Stool
- Corynebacterium diphtheriae (Klebs-Löffler bacillus)- An Overview
- E. coli (Escherichia coli)- An Overview
- E. coli Pathotypes- ETEC, EPEC, EHEC, EAEC, EIEC, DAEC
- E. coli virotypes Food Poisoning, Infection and Illness
- Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC)
- Enterobacteriaceae Cultural Characteristics
- Enterobacteriaceae- Definition, Characteristics, Identification
- Enterococcus faecalis: A Comprehensive Guide
- Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC)
- Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC)
- Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC)
- Epsilometer test (E test)- Principle, Procedure, Results, Advantages
- Eubacteria- Definition, Characteristics, Structure, Types, Examples
- Eye and Ear Microbiota (Microbiome)- Normal Flora of Eye & Ear
- Factors affecting bacterial pathogenicity
- Facultative Anaerobes: Characteristics, Examples, Uses
- Food poisoning by Listeria monocytogenes (Listeriosis)
- Gram-negative bacteria- cell wall, examples, diseases, antibiotics
- Gram-positive bacteria- cell wall, examples, diseases, antibiotics
- Gram-positive cell wall
- Habitat and Morphology of Gardnerella vaginalis
- Habitat and Morphology of Klebsiella pneumoniae
- Habitat and Morphology of Listeria monocytogenes
- Habitat and Morphology of Mycobacterium leprae
- Habitat and Morphology of Mycoplasma pneumoniae
- Habitat and Morphology of Neisseria gonorrhoeae
- Habitat and Morphology of Shigella dysenteriae
- Habitat and Morphology of Streptococcus pneumoniae
- Hemolysis of Streptococci- Types and Examples with Images
- Human Microbiome and Normal Flora Of The Human Body
- Klebsiella pneumoniae- Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention
- Klebsiella pneumoniae- Pathogenicity and Clinical Manifestations
- Laboratory diagnosis of Bacterial vaginosis caused by Gardnerella vaginalis
- Laboratory diagnosis of Legionella pneumophila
- Laboratory diagnosis of Leprosy caused by Mycobacterium leprae
- Laboratory diagnosis of Listeriosis caused by Listeria monocytogenes
- Laboratory diagnosis of Syphilis caused by Treponema pallidum
- Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Coxiella burnetii
- Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Francisella tularensis
- Laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prevention of Leptospira interrogans
- Laboratory diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Mycoplasma pneumoniae
- Laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prevention of Rickettsia rickettsii
- Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Shigella dysenteriae
- Laboratory diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Streptococcus pneumoniae
- Lactobacillus acidophilus- An Overview
- List of Myxobacteria species discovered (Updated 2023)
- Mesophiles: Definition, Habitat, Examples, Advantages
- Modified Hodge Test (MHT)- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Morphology of Bacteria- Sizes, Shapes, Arrangements, Examples
- Most Probable Number (MPN) Test for Water Quality
- Mycobacterium tuberculosis- An Overview
- Neisseria gonorrhoeae- Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention
- Neisseria meningitidis vs Neisseria gonorrhoeae- 32 Differences
- Normal Flora (Microbiota) of Mouth and Gastrointestinal Tract
- Normal Flora of Skin, Hair, and Nail- Human Skin Microbiome
- O antigen and H antigen- Definition and 21 Key Differences
- Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestation of Gardenerella vaginalis
- Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestation of Neisseria gonorrhoeae
- Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations of Coxiella burnetii
- Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Francisella tularensis
- Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations of Leptospira interrogans
- Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations of Mycobacterium leprae
- Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations of Mycoplasma pneumoniae
- Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Rickettsia rickettsii
- Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Treponema pallidum
- Pneumococcus vs Viridans streptococci- 12 Major Differences
- Pseudomonas aeruginosa- An Overview
- Pseudomonas putida- An Overview
- Respiratory Microbiota- Normal Flora of Respiratory Tract
- Rickettsia Infection- Tick-Borne Rickettsioses And Spotted Fever
- Salmonellosis- Food Infection and Food Poisoning by Salmonella
- Serratia marcescens- An Overview
- Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC)
- Shigella dysenteriae- Pathogenicity and Clinical Manifestation
- Staphylococcal food poisoning (SFP)- Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins
- Staphylococcus aureus- An Overview
- Staphylococcus capitis- An Overview
- Staphylococcus epidermidis- An Overview
- Staphylococcus hominis- An Overview
- Staphylococcus lugdunensis- An Overview
- Staphylococcus saprophyticus- An Overview
- Staphylococcus vs Streptococcus- 20 Major Differences
- Streptococcus agalactiae- An Overview
- Streptococcus anginosus- An Overview
- Streptococcus bovis- An Overview
- Streptococcus mitis- An Overview
- Streptococcus mutans- An Overview
- Streptococcus pyogenes- Group A Streptococcus (GAS)- An Overview
- Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)- An Overview
- Urogenital Microbiota- Normal Flora of Urinary and Vaginal Tract
- Vibrio cholerae Food Poisoning- Cholera toxin (CT)
- Vibrio parahaemolyticus Food Poisoning- Gastroenteritis
- Vibrio vulnificus: An Overview
- Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Legionella pneumophila
- Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Listeria monocytogenes
- Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Streptococcus pneumoniae
- What are Bacteria?- A Complete Study Note and Guide
- Yersinia enterocolitica Food Poisoning (Yersiniosis)
Basic Microbiology Notes
- 37 Types of PCR with Definition, Principle, and Uses
- Archaea vs Bacteria- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples
- Archaea: Habitat, Characteristics, Classification, Applications
- Bacteria vs Fungi- Definition, 21 Major Differences, Examples
- Bacteria vs. Virus: 28 Differences with Examples
- Bacterial and Fungal Preservation Methods
- Bacterial Growth and Factors Affecting Growth of Bacteria
- Bacterial growth curve and its significance
- Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology and Determinative Bacteriology
- Biochemical Test and Identification of Bacteria
- Biosafety Cabinets- Definition, Classes (I, II, III) and Types
- Biosafety Levels (BSL-1, BSL-2, BSL-3 and BSL-4)
- Chemical methods of sterilization- Gaseous and Liquid
- Cilia vs Flagella- Definition and 19 Major Differences
- Cilia: Structure, Formation, Types, Functions, Examples
- Classification of Bacteria in different 9 ways
- Classification of Bacteria on the basis of Nutrition
- Classification of Fungi
- Degradation and Deterioration
- Differences between terminologies used in Microbiology
- Direct Microscopic Counts- Principle, Procedure, Uses
- DNA vs RNA- Definition and 30 Key Differences
- Experiments in support and against Spontaneous Generation
- Fields of Microbiology
- Flagella: Structure, Types, Arrangement, Functions, Examples
- General Aseptic Techniques in Microbiology Laboratory
- Gram-Positive vs Gram-Negative Bacteria- 31 Differences with Examples
- History of Microbiology and Contributors in Microbiology
- Incubator: Parts, Working, Types, Uses, Precautions
- Isolation of Actinomycetes from Soil sample
- Isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) from Soil sample
- Koch’s postulates and its limitations
- Laminar flow hood/cabinet- Definition, parts, principle, types, uses
- Louis Pasteur and his contributions
- McFarland Standards- Principle, Preparation, Uses, Limitations
- Meningitis vs Encephalitis- Definition and 17 Differences
- Microbial Culture Media- Definition, Types, Examples, Uses
- Microbiology History and Scientists with their Discoveries
- Microbiology Terms and Terminology with Definitions
- Most Probable Number (MPN) Test for Water Quality
- O antigen and H antigen- Definition and 21 Key Differences
- Paramecium caudatum- Habitat, Culture, Structure, Locomotion
- Peptone Water- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Petri Dish: Definition, Parts, Types, Uses, 4 Examples
- Physical methods of sterilization- Heat, Filtration, Radiation
- Pour Plate Method- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Uses
- Principles of Diagnosis with Medical Microbiology
- Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes (47 Key Differences)
- Robert Koch and Koch’s Postulates
- Scope and Applications of Microbiology in 2023
- Serial Dilution: Formula, Calculator, Method, Uses, Examples
- Spread Plate Method- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Uses
- Sterilization- Physical and chemical methods
- Streak Plate Method- Principle, Types, Methods, Uses
- The Germ Theory of Disease
- VIVA Alert: Basic Microbiology with mnemonics
- Water Quality Analysis by Membrane Filter (MF) Technique
- What is Sensitivity, Specificity, False positive, False negative?
- Why a Nursing Student Should Learn Microbiology?
- Why TCBS agar is not autoclaved?
Biochemical Test Notes
- Acetamide Utilization Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Acetate Utilization Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Bacitracin Susceptibility Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Beta (β) Lactamase Test: Principle, Types, Procedure, Results
- Bile Esculin Test- Principle, procedure, results, uses, limitations
- Bile Solubility Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses
- Biochemical Test of Acinetobacter baumannii
- Biochemical Test of Actinomyces israelii
- Biochemical Test of Aeromonas caviae
- Biochemical Test of Aeromonas hydrophila
- Biochemical Test of Alcaligenes faecalis subsp. faecalis
- Biochemical Test of Bacillus anthracis
- Biochemical Test of Bacillus cereus
- Biochemical Test of Bacillus subtilis
- Biochemical Test of Bacteroides fragilis
- Biochemical Test of Bifidobacterium bifidum
- Biochemical Test of Bordetella pertussis
- Biochemical Test of Brucella melitensis
- Biochemical Test of Burkholderia cepacia
- Biochemical Test of Burkholderia pseudomallei
- Biochemical Test of Campylobacter fetus subsp. fetus
- Biochemical Test of Campylobacter jejuni
- Biochemical Test of Chlamydia trachomatis
- Biochemical test of Citrobacter freundii
- Biochemical Test of Clostridium botulinum
- Biochemical Test of Clostridium difficile
- Biochemical Test of Clostridium perfringens
- Biochemical Test of Clostridium tetani
- Biochemical Test of Corynebacterium diphtheriae
- Biochemical Test of Edwardsiella tarda
- Biochemical Test of Enterobacter aerogenes
- Biochemical Test of Enterobacter cloacae
- Biochemical Test of Enterococcus faecalis
- Biochemical Test of Enterococcus faecium
- Biochemical Test of Escherichia coli (E. coli)
- Biochemical Test of Francisella tularensis subsp. tularensis
- Biochemical Test of Fusobacterium necrophorum
- Biochemical Test of Gardnerella vaginalis
- Biochemical Test of Haemophilus aegyptius
- Biochemical Test of Haemophilus influenzae
- Biochemical Test of Haemophilus parainfluenzae
- Biochemical Test of Hafnia alvei
- Biochemical Test of Helicobacter pylori
- Biochemical Test of Kingella kingae
- Biochemical Test of Klebsiella granulomatis
- Biochemical Test of Klebsiella oxytoca
- Biochemical Test of Klebsiella pneumoniae
- Biochemical Test of Lactobacillus spp.
- Biochemical Test of Listeria monocytogenes
- Biochemical Test of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
- Biochemical Test of Neisseria gonorrhoeae
- Biochemical Test of Proteus mirabilis
- Biochemical Test of Providencia stuartii
- Biochemical Test of Pseudomonas aeruginosa
- Biochemical Test of Salmonella Typhi
- Biochemical Test of Serratia marcescens
- Biochemical Test of Shigella flexneri
- Biochemical Test of Staphylococcus aureus
- Biochemical Test of Staphylococcus epidermidis
- Biochemical Test of Streptococcus agalactiae
- Biochemical Test of Streptococcus canis
- Biochemical Test of Streptococcus mutans
- Biochemical Test of Streptococcus pneumoniae
- Biochemical Test of Streptococcus pyogenes
- Biochemical Test of Vibrio cholerae
- Biochemical Test of Yersinia pestis
- Butyrate Disk Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses, Limitations
- CAMP Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses, Limitations
- Casein Hydrolysis Test- Principle, Procedure, Results
- Catalase Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses
- Cetrimide Agar Test- Principle, Procedures, Results, Uses
- Citrate Utilization Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Coagulase Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Result, Uses
- Decarboxylase Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- DNase Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Esculin Hydrolysis Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Gelatin Hydrolysis Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Result, Uses
- Growth at 42°C Test- Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Hippurate Hydrolysis Test- Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) Test: Principle, Procedure, Results
- IMViC Test- Principle, Result Chart, Examples, Uses
- Indole Test- Principle, Media, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses
- KIA Test- Principle, Media, Procedure, Results, Uses
- KOH Test- Principle, Media, Procedure, Results, Uses
- LAP Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Lecithinase Test (Nagler’s Reaction): Principle, Procedure, Results
- Lipid Hydrolysis Test (Lipase Test)- Principle, Procedure, Results
- Litmus Milk Medium Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Results
- Lysine Iron Agar Test- Principle, Media, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Malonate Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure and Results
- Methyl Red (MR) Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Microdase (Modified Oxidase) Test- Principle, Procedure, Results
- Motility Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Results, Limitation
- MRS Broth Test- Principle, Procedure and Results
- MUG Test- Objective, Principle, Procedure, Result, Limitations
- Nitrate Reduction Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses
- Nitrite Reduction Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Limitations
- Novobiocin Susceptibility Test- Principle, Procedure, Results
- OF Test- Oxidation/Oxidative-Fermentation/Fermentative Test
- ONPG Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Optochin Susceptibility Test- Principle, Procedure, Results
- Oxidase Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses
- Phenylalanine Deaminase Test- Principle, Procedure, Results
- PYR Test: Principle, Media, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Pyruvate Broth Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Salt Tolerance Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Satellitism Test: Principle, Media, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Spot Indole Test: Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Starch Hydrolysis Test: Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Sulfur Reduction Test: Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- TSIA Test: Principle, Media, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Urease Test- Principle, Media, Procedure, Result, Uses
- VP Test: Principle, Reagents, Procedure, Results, Uses
- X and V Factor Test: Principle, Procedure, Results
Biochemistry Notes
- Acree-Rosenheim Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Action Potential- Definition, Mechanism, Significances
- Active Transport- Definition, Types, Process, Examples
- Aerobic Respiration- Definition, Steps, ATP Yield, Diagram, Uses
- Alcohol Fermentation (Ethanol): Process, Steps, Uses
- Allosteric Inhibition: Mechanism, Cooperativity, Examples
- Alpha Oxidation: Location, Pathway, Steps, Significance
- Alpha-Actinin: Definition, Structure, Types, Functions
- Alternative Splicing- Definition, Mechanism, Types, Uses
- Amino Acids- Properties, Structure, Classification, Functions
- Anaerobic Respiration- Definition, Types, Steps, Equation, Products, Uses
- Anthrone Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- ATP Synthase: Structure, Mechanism, Significances
- ATP- Definition, Structure, Production, Synthesis, Functions
- Barfoed’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Benedict’s Test- Principle, Procedure, Steps, Results, Uses
- Beta Oxidation of Fatty Acid: Steps, Uses, Diagram
- Bial’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Biuret Test for Protein- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Brain Lipid Extraction Protocol
- Buffer and Extraction Buffer- Definition, Components, Significance
- Carbohydrate Fermentation Test (Sugar Fermentation Test)
- Carbohydrates: Classification, Structure, Functions
- Cell Membrane Inhibitors: Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
- Cell Wall Synthesis Inhibitors: Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
- Cellular Respiration- Equations, Types, Steps, Products
- Chargaff’s Rules: First and Second Rules, Applications
- Chemical Digestion of Carbohydrate, Protein, Lipid, Nucleic Acid
- Chemical Reactions: Types, Balancing, Factors, Rates
- Chemiosmosis: Definition, Components, Mechanisms, Uses
- Cholesterol structure and synthesis
- Coding Strand vs. Template Strand: 6 Key Differences
- Codon Chart and Table of Amino Acids
- Concentration Gradient: Definition, Factors, Applications
- Cori Cycle: Key Steps, Regulations, Importance
- Covalent Histone Modification- Definition, Types, Functions
- De novo pyrimidine synthesis steps, pathways, uses
- Degradation and Deterioration
- Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats
- DNA Cloning: Principle, Steps, Components, Methods, Uses
- DNA Damage and DNA Repair: Types and Mechanism
- DNA Gyrase- Definition, Structure, Reactions, Mechanisms
- DNA Helicases- Definition, Structure, Types, Functions, Examples
- DNA Ligase- Definition, Structure, Types, Functions
- DNA Polymerase: Properties, Structure, Types, Functions
- DNA Replication: Enzymes, Mechanism, Steps, Applications
- DNA Synthesis Inhibitors- Definition, Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
- DNA: Properties, Structure, Composition, Types, Functions
- Eastern Blot- Definition, Principle, Steps, Results, Applications
- Ehrlich Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Eicosanoids: Definition, classes, functions, synthesis
- Electron Transport Chain: Definition, Components, Steps
- End Products Of Glycolysis and Fate of Pyruvate
- Enzyme Inhibition: An Introduction
- Enzyme Inhibitors- Competitive, Noncompetitive, End-product inhibition
- Enzymes: Structure, Types, Mechanism, Functions
- Esbach Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Ethanol Metabolism: Enzymes, Steps, Reactions
- Factors affecting enzyme action and immobilized enzymes
- Fat soluble vitamins- Vitamin A, D, E and K
- Fatty Acid Synthesis: Pathway and Importance
- Fatty Acids- Definition, Classification, Types, Functions
- Fehling’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Folic acid synthesis inhibitors- Definition, Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
- Fructose Metabolism (Fructolysis): Steps and Importance
- Galactose Metabolism: Enzymes, Steps, Pathways, Uses
- Gel Electrophoresis System- Apparatus, Parts, Types, Examples
- Gluconeogenesis: Location, Steps, Reactions, Significance
- Glycogenesis: Location, Steps, Enzymes, Regulation, Uses
- Glycogenolysis: Location, Steps, Enzymes, Regulation, Uses
- Glycolysis 10 Steps with Diagram and ATP Formation
- Glycolysis- Definition, Equation, Enzymes, 10 Steps, Diagram
- Heat coagulation test of proteins
- Heller’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Heme Degradation: Location, Enzymes, Steps, Uses
- Heme Synthesis: Location, Enzymes, Steps, Regulation, Uses
- Henderson Hasselbalch Equation
- Hopkin’s Cole Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Hydrophilic Molecule: Definition, Examples, Applications
- Induced Fit Model- Definition, Mechanism, Advantages
- Introduction to Carbohydrates
- Introns- Definition, Structure, Functions, Classes, Splicing
- Iodine Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Isatin Test- Definition, Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Ketones in urine (ketonuria) and Ketones in urine test
- Krebs Cycle: Location, Enzymes, Steps, Products, Diagram
- Lead Sulfide Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Leaf Starch Test: Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Lineweaver–Burk Plot
- Lipids: Properties, Structure, Classification, Types, Functions
- Lock and Key Model- Mode of Action of Enzymes
- Macronutrients: Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats
- Membrane Carbohydrates: Types, Structure, Functions
- Membrane Lipids: Composition, Structure, Functions
- Membrane Proteins: Structure, Types, Functions
- Messenger RNA (mRNA)- Definition, Structure, Processing, Types, Functions
- Microbial degradation of cellulose (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
- Microbial degradation of chitin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
- Microbial degradation of hemicellulose (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
- Microbial degradation of lignin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
- Microbial degradation of pectin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
- Microbial Production of Penicillin- Definition, Biosynthesis, Process, Uses
- Millon’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Molisch Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Monomers: Types, Examples, Classification, Uses
- Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, and Polysaccharides
- Mucic Acid Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Mycolic acid biosynthesis inhibitors- Definition, Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
- Ninhydrin Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Nitroprusside Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Nucleic Acids- Nucleosides and Nucleotides
- Omega Oxidation of Fatty Acids: Enzymes, Steps, Reactions
- Osazone Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Oxidative Phosphorylation: Enzymes, Factors, Steps
- Passive Transport: Features, Types, Functions
- Pauly’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- PCR- Definition, Principle, Enzymes, Steps, Types, Uses
- Pentose Phosphate Pathway: Steps, Diagram, Uses
- Pentose Sugar: Classification, Structural Forms, Uses
- Peptide Bond- Definition, Formation, Degradation, Examples
- Phosphoketolase (Heterolactic) Pathway: Steps, Reactions
- Phospholipid Bilayer- Structure, Types, Properties, Functions
- Plasma Proteins: Definition, Structure, Functions
- Primary vs Secondary Metabolites- Definition, 12 Differences, Examples
- Protein Structure- Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary
- Protein Synthesis Inhibitors- Definition, Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
- Proteins: Properties, Structure, Types, Functions
- Proteomics: Types, Methods, Steps, Applications
- Purine Synthesis
- Purine- Structure, Types, Derivatives, Modification, Effects
- Pyrimidine- Definition, Properties, Structure, Uses
- Reducing Sugars- Definition, Characteristics, Examples, Uses
- RNA Polymerase: Properties, Structure, Types, Functions
- RNA Sequencing- Definition, Principle, Steps, Types, Uses
- RNA Synthesis Inhibitors- Definition, Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
- RNA: Properties, Structure, Composition, Types, Functions
- Sakaguchi Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Salt Saturation Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Saturated vs Unsaturated fatty acids- Definition, 20 Differences, Examples
- Seliwanoff’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Solubility Tests of Proteins- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Starch Digestion: Structure, Enzymes, Mechanism, Process
- Starch: Structure, Composition, Properties, Uses, Types
- Structure of Water and Hydrogen Bonding
- Sullivan and McCarthy’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Testing for Biological Molecules
- The Five Study Tips for Pharmacology to Ace Your Grades in Nursing School
- The Michaelis–Menten model
- The Wobble Hypothesis: Definition, Statement, Significance
- Tollens’ Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Transfer RNA (tRNA)- Definition, Structure, Processing, Types, Functions
- Types of Protein Structure with Diagrams
- Urea Cycle: Functions, Steps, Products, Regulation, Disorders
- Uronic Acid Pathway: Enzymes, Steps, Applications
- Water Soluble Vitamins- B-Complex and C
- Western Blot: Principle, Steps, Results, Applications
- Xanthoproteic Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Bioinformatics Notes
- Bioinformatics Databases, Software, and Tools with Uses
- Bioinformatics- Introduction and Applications
- Biological Databases- Types and Importance
- BLAST (Bioinformatics)- Definition, 5 Types, Steps, Uses
- Computer-Aided Drug Design (CADD): Types, Uses, Examples, Softwares
- FASTA- Definition, Programs, Working, Steps, Uses
- Gene Prediction- Importance and Methods
- Genomics vs. Proteomics: 10 Major Differences
- Homology Modeling- Definition, Steps, Diagram, Uses
- How to construct a Phylogenetic tree ?
- In Silico Drug Design- Definition, Methods, Types, Uses
- Nucleotide Databases- Definition, Types, Examples, Uses
- Phylogenetic Tree- Definition, Types, Steps, Methods, Uses
- Primary Databases- Definition, Types, Examples, Uses
- Protein Databases- Definition, Types, Examples, Uses
- Python and R Programming Language in Bioinformatics
- Secondary Databases- Definition, Types, Examples, Uses
- Sequence Alignment- Definition, Types, Methods, Uses
- The Earth BioGenome Project (EBP)
- The Human Genome Project
- What are FASTA and BLAST? An Introduction
Biology Notes
- Solanaceae Family (Night Shade or Potato Family)
- Secondary Succession: Stages, Examples, Importance
- Primary Succession: Stages, Examples, Importance
- Secondary Consumers: Types, Food Chain, Examples, Roles
- Primary Consumers: Definition, Food Chain, Examples, Roles
- Climax Community: Characteristics, Stages, Factors
- Carbon Fixation: Processes, Pathways, and Implications
- Assimilation in Biology: Process, Types, Examples
- Biosphere: Origin, Components, Importance, Examples
- Founder Effect: Definition, Examples, Significances
- Disruptive Selection: Definition, Examples, Significances
- Top and Best Biology Websites/Blogs of 2024 for Study Notes
- Species: Classification, Taxonomy, Example, Identification
- Theria: Characteristics, Diversity, Types, Examples
- Analogous Structures: Definition, 4 Examples, Significances
- Osmosis: Definition, Types, Examples (Osmosis vs Diffusion)
- Mitosis: Phases, Stages, Applications with Diagram
- Brassicaceae Family: Characteristics, Floral Formula, Diagram
- Reproductive Isolation: Pre-zygotic, Post-zygotic, Genetics
- Gradualism: The Power of Incremental Change
- Meristem Culture Technique with Method and Uses
- Paraphyletic- Definition, Group, Classification, Examples
- Denitrification: Definition, Microbes, Factors, Applications
- 52 Laboratory Safety Symbols, Signs, and Meanings
- Arboreal- Definition, Biomechanics of Trees, Adaptions
- Apex Predators- Definition, Trophic Cascade, Examples
- Embryo- Definition, Plant, and Animal Embryo with Process
- Celsius vs. Fahrenheit Scale- 10 Differences with Examples
- Arteries vs. Veins vs. Capillaries (12 Differences)
- Ecosystem- Definition, Structure, Factors, Types, Functions
- Pyramid of energy- Definition, Levels, Importance, Examples
- Natural Selection- Definition, Theory, Types, Examples
- Animal Kingdom- Definition, Characteristics, Phyla, Examples
- Ecological Niche- Definition, Components, Types, Examples
- Alternation of Generations- Life Cycle in Plants
- Plant Tissue Culture: Definition, Media, Steps, Types, Uses
- Seed- Definition, Types, Structure, Development, Dispersal, Uses
- Decomposers- Definition, Types, Examples, Decomposition
- Angiosperms- Characteristics, Morphology, Classification, Uses
- Gymnosperms- Characteristics, Morphology, Classification, Uses
- 3 Domains of Life (Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya)
- Scientific Name- Definition, Rules, Examples, Nomenclature
- Applications of Transgenic Plants
- Fragmentation in Plants, Animals, Fungi, Algae with Examples
- Parenchyma Cell- Definition, Structure, Types, Functions
- Photosynthesis Limiting Factors (Factors Affecting)
- Flora vs. Fauna: 12 Major Differences, Examples
- Mitosis vs. Meiosis: 32 Major Key Differences
- Oviparous vs. Viviparous: 11 Differences, Examples
- Absorption vs. Adsorption: 10 Differences, Examples
- Phylum Porifera- Characteristics, classification, examples
- Oxygen Release in Photosynthesis Protocol
- Nitrogen Cycle- Definition, Steps, Process, Significance
- Mesothelioma Cancer
- Drosophila Development: Stages, Significance
- The Prenatal Developmental Period
- Evolutionary Embryology- Definition, Advent, Theory
- Sexual Reproduction: Features, Stages, Types, Examples
- Asexual Reproduction: Features, Types, Examples
- ATP- Definition, Structure, Production, Synthesis, Functions
- Binomial Nomenclature: History, Rules, Examples, Uses
- Heterotrophs- Definition and Types with 4 Examples
- Autotrophs- Definition, Types and 4 Examples
- Anabolism vs Catabolism- Definition, 13 Key Differences, Examples
- Syntrophism or Syntrophy Interaction- Definition, Examples
- Competition Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples
- Biotic Factors: Types, Examples, Factors Affecting
- Predation Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples
- Parasitism Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples
- Abiotic Factors- Definition, Types, Examples and Responses
- Amensalism (Antagonism) Interaction: Types, Examples
- Commensalism Interaction- Definition, Types and Examples
- Protocooperation Interaction- Definition and Examples
- Mutualism Interaction- Definition, Symbiosis, Types and Examples
- Trophic Level: Food chain, Food web, Pyramid, Examples
- Eutrophication- Definition, Causes, Types, Process, Examples
- Monocot vs. Dicot Seed: Structure, 10 Differences, Examples
- Monocot vs. Dicot Flower: Structure, 6 Differences, Examples
- Monocot vs. Dicot Stem: Structure, 22 Differences, Examples
- Monocot vs. Dicot Roots: Structure, 18 Differences, Examples
- Monocot vs. Dicot Leaves: Structure, 13 Differences, Examples
- Feedback Mechanism Loop: Definition, Types, Examples
- Connective Tissue: Structure, Cells, Types, Functions, Diseases
- 3D Bioprinting- Definition, Principle, Process, Types, Applications
- Phylum Echinodermata- Characteristics, classification, examples
- Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria)- Characteristics, classification, examples
- Chlorophyll- Definition, Structure, Types, Biosynthesis, Uses
- Phylum Hemichordata- Characteristics, classification, examples
- Phylum Arthropoda- Characteristics, classification, examples
- Phosphorus Cycle- Definition, Steps, Examples, Significance, Human Impacts
- Sulfur Cycle- Definition, Steps, Examples, Significance, Human Impacts
- Carbon Cycle: Steps, Examples, Significance, Human Impacts
- MCH Blood Test- Definition, Calculation, Results, High and Low MCH value
- Buffy Coat- Definition, Preparation, Uses
- MPV Blood Test- Definition, Calculation, Results, High and Low MPV value
- Glandular epithelium- definition, structure, functions, examples
- Transitional epithelium- definition, structure, functions, examples
- Pseudostratified columnar epithelium- structure, functions, examples
- Stratified cuboidal epithelium- structure, functions, examples
- Stratified columnar epithelium- structure, functions, examples
- Stratified Squamous Epithelium: Structure, Functions, Examples
- Simple columnar epithelium- structure, functions, examples
- Simple squamous epithelium- structure, functions, examples
- Simple cuboidal epithelium- structure, functions, examples
- Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction: 16 Differences, Examples
- Xylem vs. Phloem: 18 Major Differences, Examples
- Vascular vs. Non-vascular Plants: 17 Differences, Examples
- Taproot vs. Fibrous Root: 17 Key Differences, Examples
- Primary vs. Secondary Succession: 12 Differences, Examples
- Divergent Evolution- Definition, Causes, Examples
- Phytoplankton vs. Zooplankton: 16 Differences, Examples
- Pollination vs. Fertilization: 12 Differences, Examples
- Convergent Evolution- Definition, Causes, Examples, vs. Divergent
- Tardigrade- Definition, Habitat, Morphology, Physiology, Interesting facts
- Monocots vs. Dicots: 26 Differences, Examples
- Nitrification vs. Denitrification: 15 Differences, Examples
- Bioremediation: Factors, Types, Advantages, Disadvantages
- Habitat vs. Niche: 14 Major Differences, Examples
- Epithelial vs. Connective Tissue: 15 Differences, Examples
- Cold-Blooded vs. Warm-Blooded Animals: 16 Differences, Examples
- Diploid vs. Haploid: 12 Major Differences, Examples
- Biotic vs. Abiotic Factors: 10 Differences, Examples
- Angiosperm vs. Gymnosperm: 27 Differences, Examples
- Autotroph vs. Heterotroph: 14 Differences, Examples
- Amphibians vs. Reptiles: 15 Key Differences, Examples
- Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Respiration: 11 Differences, Examples
- Actin vs Myosin: Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples
- Homeostasis- Definition, Types, Examples, Applications
- Photosynthesis- Definition, Equation, Steps, Process, Diagram
- Cladogram: Features, Parts, Examples (vs. Phylogram)
- Pinocytosis- definition, steps, types, examples, (vs phagocytosis)
- Meiosis: Phases, Stages, Applications with Diagram
- Anisocytosis: Types, Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis
- Epithelial Tissue – Definition, types, functions, examples
- Simple Diffusion vs Facilitated Diffusion (11 Differences)
- Simple diffusion- Definition, principle, examples, applications
- Speciation- Definition, causes, process, types, examples
- Facilitated Diffusion- Definition, principle, factors, examples
- Binary Fission: Steps, Types, Examples (vs. Mitosis)
- Phylum Ctenophora- characteristics, classification, examples
- Phylum Mollusca- characteristics, classification, examples
- Phylum Nematoda- characteristics, classification, examples
- Phylum Aschelminthes- characteristics, classification, examples
- Phylum Platyhelminthes- characteristics, classification, examples
- Phylum Annelida- characteristics, classification, examples
- Types of Plant Cell: Structure, Functions, Labeled Diagram
- Zebrafish Development- Different Stages and Process
- Implantation- Process, Events, Significance
- Developmental Biology
- Economic Importance (Beneficial and Harmful) of Insects
- Aurelia (A Jellyfish)- An Overview
- Vorticella (Bell Animalcule)- An Overview
- Euglena viridis- An overview
- Hydra- Reproduction (Budding and Sexual), Regeneration, Immortality
- Hydra- Locomotion, nutrition, respiration, excretion, nervous system, behaviours
- Hydra- Habit, Habitat, External Morphology, Internal Structures
- Wuchereria bancrofti- Habitat, Morphology and Life Cycle
- Earthworm- Reproductive System, Copulation, Cocoon formation
- Amoeba proteus- Nutrition, Respiration, Excretion, Osmoregulation
- Amoeba proteus- Habitat, Culture and Structures
- Reproduction in Paramecium
- Feeding mechanism in Paramecium
- Development of Caenorhabditis elegans
- Excretory or Nephridial System of Earthworm
- Circulatory system of earthworm
- Earthworm- Habit, Habitat, Morphology, Bodywall, Locomotion
- Nervous System of Earthworm
- Economic Importance of Earthworms
- Sense Organs of Earthworm
- Three-domain system (Carl Woese’s Classification)
- Comparative Embryology- Principle, Significance
- Embryology- History, Theory, Fields, Scope, Careers, Uses
- Protozoa- Definition, Characteristics, Classification, Examples
- Lower and Higher Invertebrates with their differences
- Characteristics of Invertebrates with examples
- 24 Differences between Invertebrates and Vertebrates
- Active vs. Passive Transport: 18 Differences, Examples
- Embryo Transfer- Definition, Process, Types, Condition
- Haeckel’s Three kingdom System of Classification
- Five Kingdom System of Classification- Features and Limitations
- Herbarium: Definition, Importance, 5 Examples
- Enzymes vs. Hormones: 33 Differences, Examples
- Exotoxins vs. Endotoxins: 29 Major Differences
- Digestive System of Earthworms
Biotechnology Notes
- 3D Bioprinting- Definition, Principle, Process, Types, Applications
- Batch Culture- Definition, Principle, Process, Applications, Limitations
- Batch vs Fed-Batch vs Continuous Culture- 20 Key Differences
- Beer Production- Ingredients, Process, and Method
- Biodegradation vs. Bioremediation: 6 Differences, Examples
- Biopesticides- Definition, 3 Types, and Advantages
- Bioplastics: Definition, Types, Uses, Challenges
- Butyric Acid Fermentation- Definition, Principle, Steps, Uses
- Citric Acid Production- Microbes, Methods, Steps, Factors
- ColE1 Plasmid- Definition, Structure, Sites, Applications
- Continuous Culture- Definition, Principle, Process, Types, Applications, Limitations
- Design of a Fermenter
- Edible Vaccines: The Future of Immunization
- Fed-batch Culture- Definition, Principle, Process, Types, Applications, Limitations
- Fermentation- Principle, Types, Applications, Limitations
- Gene Delivery Methods- Definition, Types, Uses
- Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)- Process, Examples
- Horizontal Gene Transfer in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
- Introduction to Enzyme Technology
- Micropropagation: Stages, Types, Applications
- pBR322 Vector -Definition, Structure, Sites, Applications
- pUC19 Vector- Definition, Structure, Sites, Applications
- Reverse Vaccinology: Definition, Principle, Methods, Uses
- Solid State Fermentation (SSF)
- Submerged Fermentation
- Ti plasmid- Definition, Structure, Types, Applications
- Vectors for gene cloning- Plasmids and Bacteriophage
- Vinegar Fermentation: Definition, Process, Production
Cell Biology Notes
- 3 Principles of Cell Theory with Historical Journey
- Anaphase in Mitosis and Meiosis (Anaphase I, II)
- Animal Cell Culture- Definition, Types, Cell Lines, Procedure, Applications
- Animal Cell: Structure, Parts, Functions, Labeled Diagram
- Anisocytosis: Types, Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis
- Apoptosis- Definition, Pathways, Assay, Examples (vs Necrosis)
- Basophils- Definition, Structure, Immunity and Functions
- Beyond the Membrane: Understanding Bulk Transport
- Blastocyst- Stages, Significance
- Blood Cells- Definition and Types with Structure and Functions
- Bone Cells: Types, Structure, Examples, Functions
- Budding: Asexual Reproduction in Plants and Hydra
- Buffy Coat- Definition, Preparation, Uses
- Cancer Cells: Definition, Morphology, Types, Development
- Cartilage Cells: Types, Structure, Examples, Functions
- Cell Cycle: Definition, Phases, Regulation, Checkpoints
- Cell Fusion- Types and Significance
- Cell Membrane: Composition, Structure, Functions
- Cell Organelles: Definition, Structure, Functions, Diagram
- Cell proliferation- Definition, assay, differentiation, diseases
- Cell Theory- Definition, History, Modern, Exceptions
- Cell Wall (Plant, Fungal, Bacterial): Structure and Functions
- Centrioles and Basal Bodies: Structure, Functions
- Centrioles- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
- Centrosome- Definition, Structure, Functions, Diagram
- Chloroplasts: Definition, Structure, Functions, Diagram
- Cilia: Structure, Formation, Types, Functions, Examples
- Connective Tissue: Structure, Cells, Types, Functions, Diseases
- Cytokinesis in animal and plant cells with diagram
- Cytoplasm: Definition, Structure, Functions, Diagram
- Cytoskeleton- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
- Dendritic Cells- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Types, Functions
- Egg Cell: Structure, Types, Functions and Oogenesis
- Endocytosis vs Exocytosis (Similarities and Differences)
- Endocytosis- Definition, Process and Types with Examples
- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Structure and Functions
- Endosymbiosis- Definition, 5 Examples, Theory, Significances
- Endothelial Cells: Definition, Types, Structure, Functions
- Eosinophils- Definition, Structure, Immunity and Functions
- Epiblast- Development and Significance
- Exocytosis- Definition, Process and Types with Examples
- Fat Cells: Definition, Types, Structure, Functions, Diseases
- Flagella: Structure, Types, Arrangement, Functions, Examples
- Fluid Mosaic Model
- Gamete- Definition, Types, Spermatogenesis, Oogenesis
- Gastrulation- Definition, Process, Factors, Consequences
- Golgi Apparatus: Definition, Structure, Functions
- Golgi Body (Golgi Complex): Structure, Functions
- Interphase: Stages, Cell cycle, Diagram, Video
- Isolation of Mitochondria from Plants, Yeast Cells, Mice, Cell Culture
- Lysosomes: Structure, Functions, Diagram
- Macrophages: Structure, Immunity, Types, Functions
- Mast Cells- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Types, Functions
- Meiosis: Phases, Stages, Applications with Diagram
- Membrane Carbohydrates: Types, Structure, Functions
- Membrane Lipids: Composition, Structure, Functions
- Metaphase in Mitosis and Meiosis (Metaphase 1 and 2)
- Microfilaments- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
- Microtubules: Structure, Composition, Functions
- Microvilli: Definition, Structure, Functions, Diagram
- Mitochondria: Properties, Structure, Functions
- Mitosis: Phases, Stages, Applications with Diagram
- Monocytes- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Subsets, Functions
- Morula- Stage, Development, Significance
- Mucous Membrane: Structure, Location, Functions, Disorders
- Muscle Cells: Types, Structure, Functions, Diseases
- Natural Killer (NK) Cells- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Functions
- Nerve Cells (Neurons): Types, Structure, Functions, Diseases
- Neutrophils – Definition, structure, count, range, functions
- Nucleus: Definition, Structure, Parts, Functions, Diagram
- Organelles of Plant and Animal
- Osmosis: Definition, Types, Examples (Osmosis vs Diffusion)
- Pancreatic Cells: Types, Structure, Functions, Diseases
- Parenchyma Cell- Definition, Structure, Types, Functions
- Passive Transport: Features, Types, Functions
- Peroxisomes- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
- Pinocytosis- definition, steps, types, examples, (vs phagocytosis)
- Plant Cell Vacuole- Definition, Structure, Types, Functions, Diagram
- Plant Cell vs. Animal Cell (25 Major Differences)
- Plant Cell Wall: Structure, Functions, Diagram
- Plant Cell: Structure, Parts, Functions, Labeled Diagram
- Plasma Membrane: Structure, Composition, Functions
- Plasmodesmata: Structure, Types, Functions, Diagram
- Plasmolysis: Types, Forms, Examples, Significance
- Plastids- Definition, Structure, Types, Functions and Diagram
- Platelets (Thrombocytes)- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Functions
- Prophase in mitosis and meiosis (Prophase 1 and 2)
- Pus- Definition, Formation, Types of Pus Cells, Significance
- Ribosomes: Structure, Types, Functions and Diagram
- Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): Structure, Functions
- Rough ER vs Smooth ER- Definition, 13 Differences, Examples
- Sandwich (Davson–Danielli) model of cell membrane
- Secretory Vesicles- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
- Simple diffusion- Definition, principle, examples, applications
- Skin Cells: Structure, Types, Functions, Diseases
- Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): Structure, Functions
- Storage Granules- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
- Telophase in Mitosis and Meiosis (Telophase I, II)
- Types of Cells with Functions and Examples
- Types of Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)- Structure, Functions
- Types of Plant Cell: Structure, Functions, Labeled Diagram
- Vacuoles- Definition, Structure, Types, Functions and Diagram
- Vesicles- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
- Zygote- Definition, Examples, Formation, Development, Challenges
Culture Media Notes
- Alkaline Peptone Water- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Amies Transport Medium- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Anaerobic Blood Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Ashdown’s Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Baird Parker Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- BCYE Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Bile Esculin Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Bird Seed Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses, Limitations
- Bismuth Sulphite Agar (BSA)- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Blood Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Uses and Hemolysis
- Brain Heart Infusion (BHI) Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Brilliant Green Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Brucella Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Campylobacter Blood Agar (CVA)- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Cary Blair Transport Medium- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Cetrimide Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Charcoal Selective Medium- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Chocolate Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- CHROMagar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- CIN Agar: Principle, Composition, Preparation, Uses
- CLED Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Columbia Agar with 5% Sheep Blood- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Cystine Glucose Blood Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Cystine Tryptic Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Czapek’s Agar (CZA)- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Deoxycholate Citrate Agar (DCA)- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Egg Yolk Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- EMB Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Endo Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Heart Infusion Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Hektoen Enteric Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Lactobacilli MRS Broth- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Levinthal’s Medium- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Loeffler Medium- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Lowenstein Jensen (LJ) Media- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Lysine Iron Agar (LIA)- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- MacConkey Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Mannitol Salt Agar (MSA)- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Martin Lewis Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Microbial Culture Media- Definition, Types, Examples, Uses
- Middlebrook Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Modified Thayer Martin Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Mueller Hinton Agar (MHA)- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- New York City Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Nutrient Agar- Principle, Composition, Preparation, Results, Uses
- PDA- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Peptone Water- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Peptone Yeast Extract Glucose Broth
- Plate Count Agar (PCA)- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Salmonella Shigella (SS) Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- SDA: Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Selenite F Broth- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Simmons Citrate Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Sorbitol MacConkey Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Starch Casein Agar (SCA)- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results
- Streptococcus Selective Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- TCBS Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Thioglycollate Broth- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Transport Media: Principle, Uses, Types, Examples
- Triple Sugar Iron (TSI) Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Tryptic Soy Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Viral Transport Media (VTM)- Principle, Preparation, Uses, Limitations
- VRBA- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- VRBL Agar (Violet Red Bile Lactose Agar)
- XLD Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- YEPD Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Yersinia Selective Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
Difference Between
- Absorption vs. Adsorption: 10 Differences, Examples
- Actin vs Myosin: Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples
- Active Immunity vs Passive Immunity- 19 Key Differences
- Active vs. Passive Transport: 18 Differences, Examples
- Acute disease vs Chronic disease- Definition, 13 Differences, Examples
- Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Respiration: 11 Differences, Examples
- Agglutination vs Precipitation- Definition, 14 Differences, Examples
- Amphibians vs. Reptiles: 15 Key Differences, Examples
- Angiosperm vs. Gymnosperm: 27 Differences, Examples
- Anthrax bacilli vs Anthracoid bacilli- 25 Differences
- Antigen vs Antibody- Definition and 12 Major Differences
- Antigenic Shift vs Antigenic Drift- Definition and 16 Differences
- Archaea vs Bacteria- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples
- Arteries vs. Veins: 27 Major Differences
- Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction: 16 Differences, Examples
- Autotroph vs. Heterotroph: 14 Differences, Examples
- B Cells vs T Cells- Definition and 17 Key Differences
- Bacteria vs Fungi- Definition, 21 Major Differences, Examples
- Bacteria vs. Virus: 28 Differences with Examples
- Biotic vs. Abiotic Factors: 10 Differences, Examples
- Bone vs. Cartilage: 15 Major Differences, Examples
- Breathing vs. Respiration: 15 Key Differences, Examples
- Celsius vs. Fahrenheit Scale- 10 Differences with Examples
- Chromosome vs. Chromatid: 11 Differences, Examples
- Cilia vs Flagella- Definition and 19 Major Differences
- Cold-Blooded vs. Warm-Blooded Animals: 16 Differences, Examples
- Communicable vs Non-communicable Diseases- Definition, 17 Differences, Examples
- Cytokines vs Chemokines- Definition and 8 Major Differences
- Diarrhea vs Dysentery- Definition and 21 Major Differences
- Diploid vs. Haploid: 12 Major Differences, Examples
- DNA Replication vs Transcription- Definition, 23 Differences
- DNA vs RNA- Definition and 30 Key Differences
- Endonuclease vs Exonuclease- Definition, 11 Differences, Examples
- Enzymes vs. Hormones: 33 Differences, Examples
- Epithelial vs. Connective Tissue: 15 Differences, Examples
- Exocrine vs. Endocrine Glands: 8 Differences, Examples
- Exotoxins vs. Endotoxins: 29 Major Differences
- Flora vs. Fauna: 12 Major Differences, Examples
- Genomics vs. Proteomics: 10 Major Differences
- Gram-Positive vs Gram-Negative Bacteria- 31 Differences with Examples
- Habitat vs. Niche: 14 Major Differences, Examples
- Heterochromatin vs. Euchromatin: 16 Differences, Examples
- Homozygous vs. Heterozygous: 10 Differences, Examples
- Humoral vs Cell mediated Immunity- Definition, 20 Differences
- Incomplete Dominance vs. Co-dominance: 10 Differences
- Independent vs. Dependent variables: 10 Differences, Examples
- Inhalation vs. Exhalation: 15 Differences, Examples
- Innate Immunity vs Adaptive Immunity- Definition and 29 Differences
- Introns vs Exons- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples
- Light Microscope vs Electron Microscope- 36 Major Differences
- Meningitis vs Encephalitis- Definition and 17 Differences
- MHC Class I vs Class II- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples
- Mitosis vs. Meiosis: 32 Major Key Differences
- Monocot vs. Dicot Flower: Structure, 6 Differences, Examples
- Monocot vs. Dicot Leaves: Structure, 13 Differences, Examples
- Monocot vs. Dicot Roots: Structure, 18 Differences, Examples
- Monocot vs. Dicot Seed: Structure, 10 Differences, Examples
- Monocot vs. Dicot Stem: Structure, 22 Differences, Examples
- Monocots vs. Dicots: 26 Differences, Examples
- Natural vs. Artificial Selection: 17 Differences, Examples
- Neisseria meningitidis vs Neisseria gonorrhoeae- 32 Differences
- Nitrification vs. Denitrification: 15 Differences, Examples
- O antigen and H antigen- Definition and 21 Key Differences
- Oviparous vs. Viviparous: 11 Differences, Examples
- Phenotype vs. Genotype: 10 Differences, Examples
- Phytoplankton vs. Zooplankton: 16 Differences, Examples
- Plant Cell vs. Animal Cell (25 Major Differences)
- Plasmodium vivax vs Plasmodium falciparum- 40 Differences
- Pneumococcus vs Viridans streptococci- 12 Major Differences
- Pollination vs. Fertilization: 12 Differences, Examples
- Primary vs Secondary Immune Response- 12 Differences
- Primary vs Secondary Metabolites- Definition, 12 Differences, Examples
- Primary vs. Secondary Succession: 12 Differences, Examples
- Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes (47 Key Differences)
- Quantitative vs. Qualitative Data: 13 Differences, Examples
- RBC vs WBC- Definition and 19 Major Differences
- Rough ER vs Smooth ER- Definition, 13 Differences, Examples
- Saturated vs Unsaturated fatty acids- Definition, 20 Differences, Examples
- Serum vs. Plasma (17 Major Differences)
- Somatic Mutation vs. Germline Mutation: 13 Key Differences
- Spermatogenesis vs. Oogenesis: 18 Differences, Examples
- Staphylococcus vs Streptococcus- 20 Major Differences
- Taproot vs. Fibrous Root: 17 Key Differences, Examples
- Transcription vs Translation- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples
- Type I Error and Type II Error: 10 Differences, Examples
- Vascular vs. Non-vascular Plants: 17 Differences, Examples
- Voluntary vs. Involuntary Muscles: 16 Differences, Examples
- Xylem vs. Phloem: 18 Major Differences, Examples
- Yeasts vs Molds- Definition and 23 Major Differences
Diseases Notes
- Acute disease vs Chronic disease- Definition, 13 Differences, Examples
- Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)- Mad Cow Disease
- Chyluria: Causes, Prevalence, Management, Treatments
- Clue Cells and Bacterial Vaginosis
- Common Human Infections and Causative Agents
- Communicable vs Non-communicable Diseases- Definition, 17 Differences, Examples
- Cysticercosis- Clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment
- Diarrhea vs Dysentery- Definition and 21 Major Differences
- E. coli Pathotypes- ETEC, EPEC, EHEC, EAEC, EIEC, DAEC
- Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC)
- Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC)
- Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC)
- Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC)
- Etiology and Global burden of UTI- A Systematic Review
- Foodborne Infection by Shigella- Shigellosis Food Poisoning
- Hand washing steps and guidelines by WHO and CDC with video
- Hyaline Casts: Structure, Types, Process, Importance
- Nosocomial Infections (Hospital-Acquired Infections)
- Rickettsia Infection- Tick-Borne Rickettsioses And Spotted Fever
- Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC)
- Signs and Symptoms of COVID-19 with Risk factors
- The Germ Theory of Disease
- Treatment options and Vaccines updates of COVID-19
- Type 1 Diabetes vs Type 2 Diabetes (14 major differences)
- Types of Candidiasis with Transmission and Pathogenesis
- Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)- An Overview
- Visceral leishmaniasis (Kala-azar)- Causes, Lab diagnosis, Treatments
- What are the types of Crystals found in Urine?
- WHO Global Tuberculosis Report 2018
Environmental Microbiology Notes
Epidemiology Notes
- Area, Scope, and Fields of Epidemiology
- Branches of Epidemiology
- Case-Control Study- Definition, Steps, Advantages, Limitations
- Cross-Sectional Study- Definition, Types, Applications, Advantages, Limitations
- Descriptive Studies- Types, Applications, Advantages, Limitations
- Disease Control- Methods, Early Detection, and Treatment
- Disease Prevention- Definition, Levels, Approaches, Key Components
- Endemic Diseases- Definition, Types, Examples, Control
- Epidemic- Definition, Causes, Types, and Response
- Epidemiologic Triad- Agent, Host, Environment
- Epidemiological Markers- Phenotypic and Genetic Markers
- Epidemiology- Definition, History, Objectives, and Types
- Error- Types, Sources, and Control
- Field Trials- Definition, Features, Uses, Strengths, Limitations
- Mode of Transmission of Diseases- Direct and Indirect Transmission
- Outbreak Investigations- Objectives, Steps, Difficulties
- Pandemic- Definition, Features, Causes, Effects, Examples
- Positive and Negative Predictive Value- Definition and Significance
- Randomized Controlled Trial (RCTs)- Definition, Features, Principle, Steps
- Sensitivity and Specificity- Definition, Formula, Calculation, Relationship
- Source of Infection and Types of Reservoirs
- Theories of Disease
- Types of Bias in Epidemiology
Food Microbiology Notes
- Bacillus cereus food poisoning with foodborne toxins
- Bioengineering, Bioreactor, and Food Technology
- Botulism Food Poisoning by Clostridium botulinum
- Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)- Mad Cow Disease
- Campylobacteriosis- Campylobacter Infection and Food Poisoning
- Clostridium perfringens Enterotoxins and Food poisoning
- Drying Method of Food Preservation with Types, Examples
- E. coli virotypes Food Poisoning, Infection and Illness
- Factors affecting the growth of microorganisms in food
- Food Irradiation: Principle of Food Preservation Technique
- Food poisoning by Listeria monocytogenes (Listeriosis)
- Food Preservation method by Low-Temperature Treatment
- Food Preservation- Chemical Preservatives with Types, Examples
- Foodborne Giardiasis- Food Poisoning by Giardia species
- Foodborne Infection by Shigella- Shigellosis Food Poisoning
- Foodborne Viruses- Food Poisoning by Viruses
- Gas Treatment as a Food Preservation Technique
- Gastrointestinal Amebiasis by Entamoeba histolytica
- Heat Treatment as a Food Preservation Technique
- High-Pressure Processing (HPP): Food Preservation
- Immune Booster Foods
- Lactobacillus acidophilus- An Overview
- Malnutrition in Nepal with 5 major causes of high rate
- Microbial Food Spoilage- Types of microorganisms with examples
- Microbial spoilage and preservation of cereal and cereal products
- Microbial spoilage of Beverages and their preservation
- Microbial spoilage of canned foods and its preservation (Canning)
- Microbial spoilage of egg and egg products
- Microbial spoilage of fish and fish products and its preservation
- Microbial spoilage of meat and meat products
- Microbial Spoilage of Milk and Milk Products (Cream, Butter, Cheese, Yoghurt, Ice-cream)
- Milk Pasteurization- Definition, Methods, Steps, Significance
- Ozone Treatment as a Food Preservation Technique
- Pasteurization- Definition, Types, Process, Comparison, Uses
- Preservation of egg and egg products from microbial spoilage
- Preservation of meat and meat products from microbial spoilage
- Preservation of milk and milk products from microbial spoilage
- Salmonellosis- Food Infection and Food Poisoning by Salmonella
- Seafood Toxins and Fish & Shellfish Poisoning
- Single Cell Protein (SCP): Microbes, Production, Uses
- Spoilage of chocolate and confectionery and its preservation
- Spoilage of sugar and sugar products and their preservations
- Staphylococcal food poisoning (SFP)- Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins
- Toxigenic Algae And Algal Food Poisoning- An Overview
- Toxigenic Fungi And Fungal Mycotoxins In Food- An Overview
- Vibrio cholerae Food Poisoning- Cholera toxin (CT)
- Vibrio parahaemolyticus Food Poisoning- Gastroenteritis
- Yersinia enterocolitica Food Poisoning (Yersiniosis)
- Yogurt: Definition, Process, Microbes, Types, Uses
Genetics Notes
- Alleles: Definition, Types, Features, Applications
- Apomorphy: Definition, Mechanism, Examples, Uses
- Artificial Selection- Definition, Steps, Examples, Uses
- Centromere- Definition, Structure, Position, Types, Functions
- Characteristic of Genetic Code
- Chiasmata- Definition, Formation, Structure, Significances
- Chromatin: Structure and Microscopic Observation
- Chromosomal Mutation: Causes, Mechanism, Types, Examples
- Chromosome Mapping: Definition, Types, Importance
- Chromosome vs. Chromatid: 11 Differences, Examples
- Chromosome: History, Cell Division, Mutation, Disorders
- Chromosomes- Definition, Structure, Types, Model, Functions
- Cladistics- Definition, Terms, Steps, vs. Phenetics
- Coding Strand vs. Template Strand: 6 Key Differences
- Codominance- Definition, Examples in Animals, Humans, Plants
- Convergent Evolution- Definition, Causes, Examples, vs. Divergent
- Dihybrid Cross- Definition, Steps and Process with Examples
- Divergent Evolution- Definition, Causes, Examples
- DNA Experiments (Griffith & Avery, McCarty, MacLeod & Hershey, Chase)
- Dominant and Recessive Traits in Plants, Animals, and Humans
- Epidemiological Markers- Phenotypic and Genetic Markers
- Epistasis- Definition, Classes, Types, Examples, Significances
- Euchromatin- Definition, Structure, Functions, Regulation
- Extrachromosomal Inheritance: Types, Modes, Uses
- Extranuclear Inheritance- Cytoplasmic Factors and Types
- Frameshift Mutation- Definition, Causes, Mechanism, Applications, Examples
- Gene Flow (Plants, Animals, Humans)- Definition, Types, Barriers
- Gene Interactions: Types, Examples, Mapping, Significances
- Gene Pool- Definition, Working, Types, Evolution, Examples
- Gene vs. Allele: Definition and 11 Key Differences
- Gene- A Comprehensive Guide
- Genes and Loci- A Complete Guide
- Genetic Drift- Definition, Types, Examples
- Genetic Variation- Definition, Causes, Types, Examples
- Genomics (Structural and Functional): Methods, Uses
- Genotype- Definition, Genes, Alleles, Genotyping, Network
- Genotypic Ratio- Definition, Calculation and 3 Examples
- Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
- Heredity- Definition, 3 Theories, and Importance
- Heterochromatin vs. Euchromatin: 16 Differences, Examples
- Heterologous Chromosomes: Characteristics, Significances
- Homologous Chromosomes: Characteristics, Significances
- Homozygous vs. Heterozygous: 10 Differences, Examples
- Incomplete Dominance vs. Co-dominance: 10 Differences
- Incomplete Dominance- Definition, Mechanism, Examples
- Karyotyping- Definition, Procedure, Steps, Applications
- Linkage- Characteristics, Types and Significance
- Mendel’s 3 Laws (Segregation, Independent Assortment, Dominance)
- Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment- Definition, Examples, Limitations
- Mendel’s Law of Segregation- Definition, Examples, Limitations
- Mendel’s Law of Dominance- Definition, Examples, Limitations
- Mendelian Inheritance: Mendelism or Mendelian Genetics
- Missense Mutation- Definition, Causes, Mechanism, Types, Examples
- Monohybrid Cross- Definition, Steps, Examples (vs Dihybrid Cross)
- Multiple Alleles: Definition, Characteristics, Examples
- Mutagens- Definition, Types (Physical, Chemical, Biological)
- Mutation: Causes, Mechanisms, Agents and Significance
- Natural vs. Artificial Selection: 17 Differences, Examples
- Non-Mendelian Inheritance
- Nonsense Mutation- Definition, Causes, Mechanism, Applications, Examples
- Okazaki Fragments- Definition, Formation, Significances
- Pedigree Chart- Definition, Interpretation, Symbols, Significances
- Phenotype vs. Genotype: 10 Differences, Examples
- Phenotype- Definition, Expression, Types, Examples, Significance
- Phenotypic Ratio- Definition, Calculation, Significances, Examples
- Point mutation- Definition, Causes, Mechanism, Types, Examples, Applications
- Polygenic Inheritance- Definition, Characteristics, Examples
- Punnett Square- Definition, Types, Application, Examples, Limitations
- Semiconservative DNA Replication in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
- Sex-linked Inheritance: Characteristics, Disorders, Examples
- Silent Mutation- Definition, Causes, Mechanism, Applications, Examples
- Sister Chromatids: Formation, Separation, Functions
- Somatic Mutation vs. Germline Mutation: 13 Key Differences
- Somatic Mutation- Definition, Causes, Outcomes, Diseases
- Synapomorphy- Definition, Importance, Examples
- Test Cross (Single, Two, Triple Gene)- Definition, Examples, Uses
- Trisomy- Definition, Causes, Types, Diagnosis, Treatments
- Twins- Types, Causes and Significance
- What are the types of Mutations?
Immunology Notes
- 5 Types of Immunoglobulins: IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE
- Active Immunity vs Passive Immunity- 19 Key Differences
- Active Immunity- Definition, Characteristics, Types, Examples
- Active Immunization- Advantages and Drawbacks
- Agglutination vs Precipitation- Definition, 14 Differences, Examples
- Agglutination: Reactions, Types, Tests, Applications
- Alternative pathway of the complement system
- Anatomical Barriers of Immune System- Skin and Mucus
- Antibody: Definition, Structure, Types, Forms, Functions
- Antigen vs Antibody- Definition and 12 Major Differences
- Antigen-Antibody Interaction- Definition, Stages, Types, Examples
- Antigen: Properties, Structure, Types, Examples
- Antigenic Shift vs Antigenic Drift- Definition and 16 Differences
- Antigens: A Comprehensive Guide for Beginners
- Apoptosis- Definition, Pathways, Assay, Examples (vs Necrosis)
- Autoimmune Disease- Definition, Types, and Examples
- B cell (B lymphocyte)- Definition, Types, Development, Applications
- B Cells vs T Cells- Definition and 17 Key Differences
- Basophils- Definition, Structure, Immunity and Functions
- Biology of the B Lymphocyte
- Blood Cells- Definition and Types with Structure and Functions
- Body Lines of Defense- Innate and Acquired Immunity
- Bone Marrow- Types, Structure and Functions
- Cells of Immune System- Types and Examples
- Classical Pathway of Complement Activation
- Competitive ELISA Protocol and Animation
- Complement Activation- Classical, Alternative and Lectin Pathways
- Complement Components and its 7 functional categories
- Complement Fixation Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Types
- Complement System and Classical pathway
- Complement- Properties and Nomenclature
- Coomb’s Test- Direct and Indirect Coomb’s Test
- Counter Current Immunoelectrophoresis
- Cytokines vs Chemokines- Definition and 8 Major Differences
- Cytokines- Mechanism of action and Functions
- Dendritic Cells- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Types, Functions
- Eastern Blot- Definition, Principle, Steps, Results, Applications
- ELISA- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Types, Steps, Uses
- Endocytosis- Definition, Process and Types with Examples
- Eosinophils- Definition, Structure, Immunity and Functions
- Factors affecting Immunogenicity
- Hemagglutination Assay- Principle, Types, Method, Uses
- Hematopoiesis- Definition, Cells, Growth Factors, Regulation
- Humoral vs Cell mediated Immunity- Definition, 20 Differences
- Hypersensitivity- Definition, Causes, Mechanism, Types, Examples
- Immune Booster Foods
- Immune Response- Definition, Types, Factors, Examples
- Immunity- Mechanism, Components, and Immunization
- Immunoelectrophoresis- Principle, Procedure, Results and Uses
- Immunofluorescence- Definition, Principle, Types, Uses, Limitations
- Immunoglobulin A (IgA)- Structure, Subclasses and Functions
- Immunoglobulin D (IgD)- Structure and Functions
- Immunoglobulin E (IgE)- Definition, Structure and Functions
- Immunoglobulin G (IgG)- Structure, Subclasses and Functions
- Immunoglobulin M (IgM)- Structure and Functions
- Immunological Techniques- Types and Examples
- Indirect ELISA- Introduction, Steps, Advantages and Protocol
- Innate Immune System- An Introduction
- Innate Immunity vs Adaptive Immunity- Definition and 29 Differences
- Innate vs. Acquired Immunity (Definition, Types, Examples)
- Introduction to Antibodies with Diagrams
- Introduction to Antigen
- Introduction to B Cells also called B-Lymphocytes
- Latex Agglutination Test
- Lectin Pathway of the complement system
- Lymph Nodes- Structure and Functions
- Lymphocytes- Types and Functions
- Macrophages: Structure, Immunity, Types, Functions
- Major Histocompatibility Complex I- Structure, Mechanism, Functions
- Major Histocompatibility Complex II- Structure, Mechanism and Functions
- Mast Cells- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Types, Functions
- MHC Class I vs Class II- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples
- MHC Class I, Class II, Antigen Processing, And Presentation
- MHC Molecule and Autoimmunity with Examples and Diagrams
- MHC Molecules- Definition, Properties, Class, Types, Pathways
- Monoclonal Antibodies- Definition, Types, Production, Applications
- Monocytes- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Subsets, Functions
- Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissues (MALT)
- Natural Killer (NK) Cells- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Functions
- Neutralization Test- Definition, Principle, Types, Procedure, Results
- Neutrophils – Definition, structure, count, range, functions
- Non-Specific Immune Response
- Opsonization- Definition, Mechanism, Opsonins, Examples
- Ouchterlony Double Immunodiffusion technique
- Passive Immunity- Definition, Characteristics, Types, Examples
- Passive immunization with advantages and drawbacks
- Phagocytosis- definition, mechanism, steps with example
- Physiological barriers of immune system
- Platelets (Thrombocytes)- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Functions
- Precipitation Reaction- Definition, Principle, Steps, Types, Uses
- Primary vs Secondary Immune Response- 12 Differences
- Properties and Function of different classes of Antibodies
- Radial Immunodiffusion- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Radioimmunoassay (RIA)- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Rapid Plasma Reagin (RPR) Test
- RBC vs WBC- Definition and 19 Major Differences
- Rh Blood Group System
- Ring Precipitation Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Examples
- Rocket Immunoelectrophoresis- Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Sandwich ELISA- Steps and Advantages
- Serum vs. Plasma (17 Major Differences)
- Spleen: Definition, Structure and Functions
- Stem Cells- Definition, Properties, Types, Uses, Challenges
- T Cell (T Lymphocyte)- Definition, Types, Development, Applications
- Thymus- Structure and Functions
- Type 1 (Anaphylactic) Hypersensitivity Reaction
- Type II (Cytotoxic) Hypersensitivity- Mechanism and Examples
- Type III (Immune Complex) Hypersensitivity- Mechanism, Examples
- Type IV (Cell Mediated) Hypersensitivity- Mechanism and Examples
- Types of antigen on the basis of source and immune response
- Vaccines- Definition, Principle, Types, Examples, Side Effects
- Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) Test
- What is Immunology?
- What is Inflammation? An Introduction
- Widal Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses
Instrumentation Notes
- 10 Types of Centrifuge with Principles and Uses
- 14 Types of Chromatography (Definition, Principle, Steps, Uses)
- 18 Instruments used in Microbiology Lab with Principle, Uses
- 22 Types of Spectroscopy with Definition, Principle, Steps, Uses
- 8 Types of Centrifugation with Principles and Uses
- Affinity Chromatography- Definition, Principle, Parts, Steps, Uses
- Agarose Gel Electrophoresis- Definition, Principle, Parts, Steps, Applications
- Analytical Balance- Definition, Principle, Parts, Types, Examples
- Autoclave: Parts, Principle, Procedure, Types, Uses
- Beer-Lambert Law- Definition, Derivation, and Limitations
- Biological Safety Cabinets (BSCs)- Classes with Examples
- Bioreactor- Definition, Design, Principle, Parts, Types, Applications, Limitations
- Borescope in Biology: Definition, Uses, Limitations
- Bunsen Burner- Principle, Parts, Types, Procedure, Uses
- Cell Disruption- Definition, Methods, Types, Significance
- Centrifugal Force- Definition, Principle, Examples (vs Centripetal force)
- Centrifuge- Principle, Parts, Types, Uses, Examples
- Chromatography- Definition, Principle, Types, Applications
- Colony Counter- Types, Principle, Parts, Uses, Examples
- Colorimeter- Definition, Principle, Parts, Uses, Examples
- Column Chromatography- Definition, Principle, Parts, Steps, Uses
- Electron Spin Resonance (ESR)- Principle, Instrumentation, Applications
- Electroporator: Principle, Types, Parts, Uses, Examples
- ELISA Plate Reader (Microplate Reader or Assay Reader)
- Flow Cytometry-Definition, Principle, Parts, Steps, Types, Uses
- Gamma-ray Spectroscopy- Definition, Principle, Parts, Uses
- Gas Chromatography- Definition, Principle, Parts, Steps, Uses
- Gel Electrophoresis System- Apparatus, Parts, Types, Examples
- Gel Filtration Chromatography- Definition, Principle, Types, Parts, Steps, Uses
- Gel Permeation Chromatography- Definition, Principle, Parts, Steps, Uses
- Homogenizer- Principle, Procedure, Parts, Types, Uses, Examples
- Hot Air Oven- Principle, Parts, Types, Uses, Examples
- Hot Plate- Principle, Parts, Procedure, Types, Uses, Examples
- HPLC: Principle, Parts, Types, Uses, Diagram
- Immunoelectrophoresis- Principle, Procedure, Results and Uses
- Incinerator- Principle, Procedure, Parts, Types, Uses, Examples
- Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy- Definition, Principle, Parts, Uses
- Inoculating Loops and Needles- Principle, Parts, Types, Uses
- Ion Exchange Chromatography: Principle, Parts, Steps, Uses
- Laboratory Incubator: Principle, Procedure, Examples
- Laboratory Refrigerators and Freezers- Principle, Parts, Types, Examples
- Laminar flow hood/cabinet- Definition, parts, principle, types, uses
- Magnetic Stirrer- Principle, Parts, Types, Uses, Examples
- Mass Spectrometry (MS)- Principle, Working, Parts, Steps, Uses
- Micropipette: Types, Parts, Working, Uses, 5 Examples
- NMR Spectroscopy- Definition, Principle, Steps, Parts, Uses
- Paper Chromatography- Definition, Types, Principle, Steps, Uses
- PCR Machine- Principle, Parts, Steps, Types, Uses, Examples
- Petri Dish: Definition, Parts, Types, Uses, 4 Examples
- pH Meter- Principle, Parts, Procedure, Types, Uses, Examples
- Pipette- Principle, Parts, Types, Procedure, Uses, Examples
- Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE)
- Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE)
- Solid State Fermentation (SSF)
- Spectrophotometer- Principle, Instrumentation, Applications
- Thin Layer Chromatography: Principle, Parts, Steps, Uses
- Ultracentrifuge: Principle, Types, Parts, Procedure, Uses
- UV Spectroscopy- Definition, Principle, Steps, Parts, Uses
- UV-Vis Spectroscopy: Principle, Parts, Uses, Limitations
- Vortex Mixer- Definition, Principle, Parts, Types, Examples, Uses
- Water Bath- Definition, Principle, Parts, Types, Procedure, Uses
- Water Distiller- Principle, Parts, Types, Uses, Examples
- X-Ray Spectroscopy- Definition, Principle, Steps, Parts, Uses
Microscopy Notes
- 16 Types of Microscopes with Parts, Functions, Diagrams
- Amazing 27 Things Under The Microscope With Diagrams
- Atomic Force Microscope: Principle, Parts, Uses
- Brightfield Microscope (Compound Light Microscope)- Definition, Principle, Parts
- Compound Microscope: Principle, Parts, Uses, Diagram
- Confocal Microscope- Definition, Principle, Parts, Types, Labeled Diagram, Applications
- Darkfield Microscope- Definition, Principle, Uses, Diagram
- Diaphragm of a Microscope: Types, Functions, Care
- Digital Microscope- Definition, Principle, Parts, Types, Examples, Uses
- Dissecting microscope (Stereo or stereoscopic microscope)- Definition, Principle, Parts
- Electron Microscope- Definition, Principle, Types, Uses, Labeled Diagram
- Eyepiece Lens: Definition, Parts, Functions, Care
- Fluorescence Microscope from LEAM Solution Inc
- Fluorescence Microscopy- Definition, Principle, Parts, Uses
- Inverted Microscope- Definition, Principle, Parts, Labeled Diagram, Uses, Worksheet
- Light Microscope vs Electron Microscope- 36 Major Differences
- Light Microscope- Definition, Principle, Types, Parts, Labeled Diagram, Magnification
- Microscope Care and Maintenance with Troubleshooting and Repairs
- Microscope Condenser: Structure, Types, Functions
- Microscopy: History, Classification, and Terms
- Objective Lenses: Types, Parts, Magnification, Uses, Care
- Parts of a microscope with functions and labeled diagram
- Phase Contrast Microscopy- Definition, Principle, Parts, Uses
- Pocket Microscope- Definition, Principle, Parts, Types, Uses
- Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)- Definition, Principle, Parts, Images
- Simple Microscope- Definition, Principle, Magnification, Parts, Applications
- Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)- Definition, Principle, Images
- USB Microscope- Definition, Principle, Parts, Examples, Uses
Molecular Biology Notes
- 37 Types of PCR with Definition, Principle, and Uses
- 7 Types of RNA with Structure and Functions
- Agarose Gel Electrophoresis- Definition, Principle, Parts, Steps, Applications
- Anticodon- Definition, Principle, Functions, Examples
- Bacterial Conjugation- Definition, Principle, Process, Examples
- Bacterial Transduction: Definition, Principle, Steps, Examples
- Bacterial Transformation- definition, principle, steps, examples
- Central Dogma- Replication, Transcription, Translation
- Cloning Vectors- Definition, Characteristics, Types, Uses
- Different forms of DNA- A form, B form, Z form
- DNA Fingerprinting- Principle, Methods, Applications
- DNA Ladders (1 kb, 1 kb plus, 100 bp, 100 bp plus) and Uses
- DNA Methylation- Definition, Principle, Significance, Control
- DNA Microarray- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Types
- DNA Replication vs Transcription- Definition, 23 Differences
- DNA Sequencing- Definition, Principle, Steps, Types, Uses
- DNA Transcription (RNA Synthesis)- Article, Diagrams and Video
- Eastern Blot- Definition, Principle, Steps, Results, Applications
- Electroporation: Definition, Principle, Steps, Uses
- Electroporator: Principle, Types, Parts, Uses, Examples
- Endonuclease vs Exonuclease- Definition, 11 Differences, Examples
- Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic DNA Polymerase
- Eukaryotic DNA Replication- Features, Enzymes, Process, Significance
- Eukaryotic Transcription
- Exon- Definition, Structure, Splicing, Process of Splicing
- Flow Cytometry-Definition, Principle, Parts, Steps, Types, Uses
- Gene Cloning- Requirements, Principle, Steps, Applications
- Gene Expression: Stages, Regulations, Methods
- Introns vs Exons- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples
- Lac operon- Definition, structure, Inducers, diagram
- Microinjection: Definition, Principle, Steps, Uses
- Microprojectile Bombardment: Principle, Steps, Uses
- Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)- Definition, Types
- Northern Blot- Definition, Principle, Steps, Results, Applications
- Nucleoside- Definition, Types, Structure, Functions
- Nucleotide- Definition, Characteristics, Biosynthesis, Functions
- PCR Machine- Principle, Parts, Steps, Types, Uses, Examples
- Plasmids- Definition, Properties, Structure, Types, Functions, Examples
- Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)- Principle, Steps, Applications
- Post Translational Modification- Definition, Processing
- Primer- Definition, Types, Primer Design Online Tools, Uses
- Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic RNA Polymerase
- Prokaryotic DNA Replication- Enzymes, Steps and Significance
- Prokaryotic Transcription- Enzymes, Steps, Significance
- Prokaryotic Translation with Enzymes, Sites, Steps
- Protein Synthesis in Eukaryotes- Definition, Enzymes and Process
- Protein Synthesis: Enzymes, Sites, Steps, Inhibitors
- Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE)
- Real-Time PCR: Principle, Process, Markers, Uses
- Recombinant DNA Technology- Definition, Steps, Applications
- Regulation of protein synthesis in Prokaryotes
- Regulation of Translation in Eukaryotes
- Restriction Enzyme (Restriction Endonuclease)
- Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
- RNA Splicing- Definition, process, mechanism, types, errors, uses
- RT-PCR: Definition, Principle, Enzymes, Types, Steps, Uses
- Southern Blot- Definition, Principle, Steps, Results, Applications
- The Wobble Hypothesis: Definition, Statement, Significance
- Topoisomerase: Types, Structure, Functions, Mechanism
- Transcription vs Translation- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples
- Transposable elements- definition, types, examples, applications
- Tryptophan (Trp) Operon
- Vector- Definition, Features, Types, Examples, Applications, Limitations
- Watson and Crick DNA Model
- What is Sensitivity, Specificity, False positive, False negative?
- Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YACs)
Mycology Notes
Parasitology Notes
- Ancylostoma duodenale- An Overview
- Ascaris lumbricoides- Digestive, Respiration, Excretory, Nervous System
- Ascaris lumbricoides- Habitat and External Morphology
- Ascaris lumbricoides- Lab Diagnosis, Treatments, Prophylaxis
- Ascaris lumbricoides- Life cycle, Pathogenicity, Clinical Manifestation
- Cysticercosis- Clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment
- Fasciola hepatica- Common liver fluke or Sheep liver fluke
- Foodborne Giardiasis- Food Poisoning by Giardia species
- Giardia duodenalis (Giardia lamblia or Giardia intestinalis)
- Giemsa Stain- Principle, Procedure, Results, Interpretation
- Host-Parasite Interactions
- Leishmania donovani- Habitat, Morphology and Life Cycle
- Parasitology VIVA Question and Answer
- Plasmodium vivax vs Plasmodium falciparum- 40 Differences
- Plasmodium vivax- Habitat, Characteristics, Structure, Life cycle
- Plasmodium vivax- Life Cycle in Man and in Mosquito
- Protozoa: Locomotory organelles and locomotion methods
- Reproductive System of Ascaris lumbricoides
- Strongyloides stercoralis (Parasitic Roundworm)- A Threadworm
- Taenia solium- Classification, Habitat, Structure, Body wall
- Taenia solium- Life history, development and adaptations
- Taenia solium- Nutrition, respiration, excretory, nervous, reproductive system
- Thick Blood Smear and Thin Blood Smear
- Visceral leishmaniasis (Kala-azar)- Causes, Lab diagnosis, Treatments
- Wheatley Trichrome Staining
Pharmacology Notes
Phycology Notes
Protocols
Research Methodology Notes
- ANOVA: Definition, one-way, two-way, table, examples, uses
- Chi-square Test: Formula, Uses, Table, Examples, Uses
- Common mistakes in Proposal writing
- Controlled Experiments: Definition, Steps, Results, Uses
- Data and its types
- Descriptive Studies- Types, Applications, Advantages, Limitations
- Independent vs. Dependent variables: 10 Differences, Examples
- Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio Data
- Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis with 9 differences
- P Value- Definition, Formula, Table, Finding P-value, Significance
- Primary Data and Secondary Data
- Quantitative vs. Qualitative Data: 13 Differences, Examples
- Questionnaire method of data collection
- Questionnaire- Types, Format, Questions
- Questionnaires and Schedules
- T-test: Definition, Formula, Types, Applications
- Type I Error and Type II Error: 10 Differences, Examples
- Types of Bias in Epidemiology
- Z-Test: Formula, Examples, Uses, Z-Test vs T-Test
Staining Notes
- Acid Fast Stain (Kinyoun-Cold Method)- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
- Acid Fast Stain- Principle, Reagents, Procedure and Result Interpretation
- Acridine Orange Stain- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
- Albert Staining- Principle, Reagents, Procedure, Results, Interpretation
- Auramine- Rhodamine Staining
- Calcofluor White Staining- Principle, Procedure, Results, Applications
- Capsule Stain- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
- Collagen Hybridizing Peptide Staining
- Endospore Staining- Types, principle, procedure and Interpretation
- Flagella Stain- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
- Giemsa Stain- Principle, Procedure, Results, Interpretation
- Gram Staining- Principle, Reagents, Procedure, Steps, Results
- Grocott-Gomori’s Methenamine Silver Staining
- Hematoxylin and eosin stain (H and E stain or HE stain)
- Iron-Hematoxylin Staining
- Lactophenol Cotton Blue (LPCB) Staining
- Masson’s Trichrome Staining
- Negative staining of Viruses
- Negative Staining- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
- Papanicolaou Staining (Pap stain) for Pap Smear / Pap Test
- Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) Staining
- Positive staining of Viruses
- Romanowsky Stains- Principle, Types, Applications
- Silver Staining- Principle, Procedure, Applications
- Simple Staining- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
- Spore Stain- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
- Sudan Black B Staining: Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Wheatley Trichrome Staining
- Ziehl-Neelsen Staining- Principle and Procedure with Results
Virology Notes
- Are Viruses Living or Non-Living? Or a Borderline
- Bacteriophage- Definition, Structure, Life Cycles, Applications, Phage Therapy
- Classification of virus
- Coltivirus- An Overview
- Coronavirus- An Overview
- Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus- An Overview
- Dengue and Dengue Virus- An Overview
- Different Types of COVID-19 Tests with Advantages, Limitations
- Ebola Virus- An Overview
- Electron microscopy (SEM and TEM) images of SARS-CoV-2
- Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) or Human Herpesvirus 4- An Overview
- Foodborne Viruses- Food Poisoning by Viruses
- Hanta Virus- An Overview
- Hepatitis A Virus- An Overview
- Hepatitis C virus- An Overview
- Hepatitis E Virus- An Overview
- Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1)- An Overview
- How viruses cause disease?
- Human Astrovirus- An Overview
- Human Cytomegalovirus- An Overview
- Human Papillomavirus (HPV)- An Overview
- Influenza A Virus: An Overview
- Japanese Encephalitis (JE) Virus- An Overview
- Lassa Virus- An Overview
- Measles Virus- An Overview
- Mumps Virus- An Overview
- Nipah Virus (NiV)- An Overview
- Norwalk Virus (Norovirus)- An Overview
- Oncogenic Viruses- An Overview
- Polio Virus- An Overview
- Positive staining of Viruses
- Prevention and Control of COVID-19
- Rabies Virus- An Overview
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)- An Overview
- Rotavirus- An Overview
- Sample collection and Diagnosis of COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2)
- Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV)
- Signs and Symptoms of COVID-19 with Risk factors
- Structure and Genome of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) with diagram
- Torovirus- An Overview
- Transmission, pathogenesis, replication of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19)
- Treatment options and Vaccines updates of COVID-19
- Varicella Zoster Virus- An Overview
- Viral Transport Media (VTM)- Principle, Preparation, Uses, Limitations
- Virology VIVA Question and Answer with mnemonics
- Virus Cultivation- Purposes and Methods
- Viruses- Structure, Replication and Diagnosis
- West Nile Virus (WNV)- An Overview
- What are Viruses?- A Complete Study Note and Guide
- Zika Virus (ZIKV)- An Overview
